In an age of information overload and intellectual fragmentation, the Iranian philosopher and martyr Shaheed Murtaza Mutahhari offers a profound and cohesive vision of knowledge—one that bridges reason, revelation, and ethical transformation. His definition of knowledge as “the presence of the form of a thing in the mind” is not a mere semantic gesture; it is a metaphysical doorway into understanding reality, truth, and the human soul’s journey toward divine proximity.

At its core, Mutahhari’s epistemology asserts that knowledge is a mental representation of reality. It is the bridge between the knower and the known, formed not by passive reception but by active intellectual engagement. This view challenges reductionist notions that equate knowledge with raw sensory data or empirical accumulation. For Mutahhari, knowledge is not just what we see—it is what we understand.

Types and Sources of Knowledge

Mutahhari distinguishes between two primary types of knowledge: conceptual and judgmental. Conceptual knowledge involves grasping meanings and definitions—understanding what things are. Judgmental knowledge, on the other hand, affirms or denies propositions, allowing us to say what is true or false. This duality reflects the layered nature of cognition, where knowing is both descriptive and evaluative.
The sources of knowledge, according to Mutahhari, are threefold: sensory perception, intellect (reason), and revelation or intuition. Sensory data provides the raw material, but it is the intellect that processes, organizes, and abstracts this input into universal concepts. Revelation, particularly prophetic insight, complements reason and corrects its limitations, offering access to truths that transcend empirical boundaries.

The Role of Intellect and the Limits of Empiricism

While sensory perception is indispensable, Mutahhari warns against its absolutization. The senses can deceive; they are limited by context and perspective. It is the intellect that refines sensory input, transforming fleeting impressions into enduring understanding. Through abstraction and reasoning, the intellect moves from the particular to the universal, from the visible to the intelligible.
This leads to a critical distinction between empirical and rational knowledge. Empirical knowledge is grounded in observation and experience—it is the domain of science and experimentation. Rational knowledge, however, is built on deduction and logical inference. Mutahhari does not pit these against each other; rather, he sees them as complementary modes of knowing, each with its own strengths and limitations.

Certainty, Truth, and Error

For Mutahhari, true knowledge must be free from doubt and based on justified belief. He outlines three levels of certainty:
- Ilm al-yaqīn (knowledge of certainty)
- Ayn al-yaqīn (vision of certainty)
- Haqq al-yaqīn (truth of certainty)

These levels reflect a deepening of epistemic confidence, moving from intellectual conviction to experiential insight and finally to existential embodiment.
Truth, in Mutahhari’s framework, is defined by correspondence—knowledge is true when it aligns with external reality. Error arises when the intellect misinterprets sensory data or when desires distort judgment. This moral dimension of error underscores Mutahhari’s belief that epistemology is not just about cognition—it is about character.

Innate Knowledge and Fitrah

Humans, Mutahhari argues, are born with fitrah—a natural disposition that includes basic moral and metaphysical awareness. This innate knowledge is not learned but discovered; it is the soul’s memory of its divine origin. Fitrah provides the ethical compass and spiritual intuition that guide human beings toward truth, even before formal education begins.

Revelation and the Unity of Knowledge

Revelation plays a pivotal role in Mutahhari’s epistemology. Prophetic knowledge is not irrational—it is supra-rational. It does not negate reason but elevates it, offering insights into realities that reason alone cannot reach. In this sense, revelation is both a source of knowledge and a corrective lens.

Mutahhari affirms the unity of knowledge. Scientific, philosophical, and religious truths are not isolated silos—they form a coherent whole. This integrative vision rejects the modern tendency to compartmentalize disciplines and instead calls for a synthesis that reflects the unity of creation itself.

Knowledge, Action, and Faith

Knowledge, for Mutahhari, is not an end in itself. It must lead to ethical action. True knowledge transforms the knower—it refines character, elevates the soul, and guides society toward justice. This transformative aspect distinguishes Mutahhari’s philosophy from sterile intellectualism.
Faith, in this framework, is not blind belief. It is grounded in rational and intuitive knowledge. It is the heart’s assent to truths that the mind has verified and the soul has tasted. Faith and reason are not adversaries—they are allies in the quest for meaning.

Philosophy and Science: Complementary Paths

Mutahhari draws a clear line between science and philosophy. Science studies phenomena—it asks “how.” Philosophy explores foundational truths and causes—it asks “why.” Both are necessary, but philosophy provides the metaphysical scaffolding upon which scientific inquiry rests.
His commitment to epistemological realism is unwavering. Reality exists independently of the mind and can be known. This stance counters postmodern skepticism and affirms the possibility of objective truth.

The Sacred Duty of Seeking Knowledge

In the Islamic tradition, Mutahhari reminds us, knowledge is sacred. Seeking it is not just a personal endeavor—it is a religious duty. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) declared that seeking knowledge is obligatory for every Muslim. Mutahhari extends this mandate, arguing that knowledge is the path to divine proximity, social justice, and spiritual fulfillment.

Conclusion: A Philosophy for Our Times

Shaheed Murtaza Mutahhari’s philosophy of knowledge is more than an academic exercise—it is a call to intellectual integrity, spiritual depth, and ethical responsibility. In a world fractured by relativism, consumerism, and ideological confusion, his vision offers a compass. It reminds us that to know is to connect, to understand is to transform, and to seek truth is to honor the sacred.
In the shadow of his martyrdom, Mutahhari’s ideas continue to illuminate. His legacy is not just in what he taught, but in how he lived—a life where knowledge was not just possessed, but embodied.

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